Images About Special Persons

                             

                       
                   

Bloom's taxonomy

  
Bloom's taxonomy 
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom with collaborators Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and David Krathwohl published a framework for categorizing educational goals: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Familiarly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy, this framework has been applied by generations of K-12 teachers and college instructors in their teaching.
The framework elaborated by Bloom and his collaborators consisted of six major categories: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. The categories after Knowledge were presented as “skills and abilities,” with the understanding that knowledge was the necessary precondition for putting these skills and abilities into practice.
Bloom's taxonomy is a classification of learning objectives within education. It is named for Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee of educators that devised the taxonomy, and who also edited the first volume of the standard text, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals.
Bloom's taxonomy refers to a classification of the different objectives that educators set for students (learning objectives). It divides educational objectives into three "domains": cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (sometimes loosely described as "knowing/head", "feeling/heart" and "doing/hands" respectively). Within the domains, learning at the higher levels is dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels. A goal of Bloom's taxonomy is to motivate educators to focus on all three domains.
There are three taxonomies. Which of the three to use for a given measurable student outcome depends upon the original goal to which the measurable student outcome is connected. There are knowledge-based goals, skills-based goals, and affective goals (affective: values, attitudes, and interests); accordingly, there is a taxonomy for each. Within each taxonomy, levels of expertise are listed in order of increasing complexity. Measurable student outcomes that require the higher levels of expertise will require more sophisticated classroom assessment techniques.
When developing instructional objectives, providing instruction, and evaluating student performance, it is important to keep in mind that there are different levels or outcomes of learning. Distinguishing among different levels and outcomes of learning is important. If teachers are unaware of different levels of learning, they are likely to focus on one level to the detriment of others. For example, a teacher may teach a vast amount of factual information but never get around to teaching students to apply and synthesize this information. Or a teacher may teach higher level thinking skills without realizing that these skills require the prior learning of basic skills that must be integrated into these higher order skills.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Cognitive Domain

 1. Knowledge (Remembering previously learned material)
Educational Psychology: Give the definition of punishment.
Mathematics: State the formula for the area of a circle.
English / Language Arts: Recite a poem.
2. Comprehension (Grasping the meaning of material) 
Educational Psychology: Paraphrase in your own words the definition of punishment; answer questions about the meaning of punishment.
Mathematics: Given the mathematical formula for the area of a circle, paraphrase it using your own words.
English / Language Arts: Explain what a poem means.
 3. Application (Using information in concrete situations)

Educational Psychology: Given an anecdote describing a teaching situation, identify examples of punishment.

Mathematics: Compute the area of actual circles.
English / Language Arts: Identify examples of metaphors in a poem.
4. Analysis (Breaking down material into parts)

Educational Psychology: Given an anecdote describing a teaching situation, identify the psychological strategies intentionally or accidentally employed.

Mathematics: Given a math word problem, determine the strategies that would be necessary to solve it.
English / Language Arts: Given a poem, identify the specific poetic strategies employed in it.
5. Synthesis (Putting parts together into a whole)
Educational Psychology: Apply the strategies learned in educational psychology in an organized manner to solve an educational problem.
Mathematics: Apply and integrate several different strategies to solve a mathematical problem.
English / Language Arts: Write an essay or a poem. 
6. Evaluation (Judging the value of a product for a given purpose, using definite criteria)
Educational Psychology: Observe another teacher (or yourself) and determine the quality of the teaching performance in terms of the teacher's appropriate application of principles of educational psychology.
Mathematics: When you have finished solving a problem (or when a peer has done so) determine the degree to which that problem was solved as efficiently as possible.
English / Language Arts: Analyze your own or a peer's essay in terms of the principles of composition discussed during the semester.
Knowledge (recalling information) represents the lowest level in Bloom's taxonomy. It is "low" only in the sense that it comes first - it provides the basis for all "higher" cognitive activity. Only after a learner is able to recall information is it possible to move on to comprehension(giving meaning to information). The third level is application, which refers to using knowledge or principles in new or real-life situations. The learner at this level solves practical problems by applying information comprehended at the previous level. The fourth level is analysis - breaking down complex information into simpler parts. The simpler parts, of course, were learned at earlier levels of the taxonomy. The fifth level, synthesis, consists of creating something that did not exist before by integrating information that had been learned at lower levels of the hierarchy. Evaluation is the highest level of Bloom's hierarchy. It consists of making judgments based on previous levels of learning to compare a product of some kind against a designated standard.

Table 1: Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Knowledge-Based Goals
1. Knowledge	Recall, or recognition of terms, ideas, procedure, theories, etc.	When is the first day of Spring?
2. Comprehension	Translate, interpret, extrapolate, but not see full implications or transfer to other situations, closer to literal translation.	What does the summer solstice represent?
3. Application	Apply abstractions, general principles, or methods to specific concrete situations.	What would Earth's seasons be like if its orbit was perfectly circular?
4. Analysis	Separation of a complex idea into its constituent parts and an understanding of organization and relationship between the parts. Includes realizing the distinction between hypothesis and fact as well as between relevant and extraneous variables.	Why are seasons reversed in the southern hemisphere?
5. Synthesis	Creative, mental construction of ideas and concepts from multiple sources to form complex ideas into a new, integrated, and meaningful pattern subject to given constraints.	If the longest day of the year is in June, why is the northern hemisphere hottest in August?
6. Evaluation	To make a judgment of ideas or methods using external evidence or self-selected criteria substantiated by observations or informed rationalizations.	What would be the important variables for predicting seasons on a newly discovered planet?

Table 2: Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Skills-Based Goals
Level of Expertise	Description of Level	Example of Measurable Student Outcome
Perception	Uses sensory cues to guide actions	Some of the colored samples you see will need dilution before you take their spectra. Using only observation, how will you decide which solutions might need to be diluted?
Set	Demonstrates a readiness to take action to perform the task or objective	Describe how you would go about taking the absorbance spectra of a sample of pigments?
Guided Response	Knows steps required to complete the task or objective	Determine the density of a group of sample metals with regular and irregular shapes.
Mechanism	Performs task or objective in a somewhat confident, proficient, and habitual manner	Using the procedure described below, determine the quantity of copper in your unknown ore. Report its mean value and standard deviation.
Complex Overt Response	Performs task or objective in a confident, proficient, and habitual manner	Use titration to determine the Ka for an unknown weak acid.
Adaptation	Performs task or objective as above, but can also modify actions to account for new or problematic situations	You are performing titrations on a series of unknown acids and find a variety of problems with the resulting curves, e.g., only 3.0 ml of base is required for one acid while 75.0 ml is required in another. What can you do to get valid data for all the unknown acids?
Organization	Creates new tasks or objectives incorporating learned ones	Recall your plating and etching experiences with an aluminum substrate. Choose a different metal substrate and design a process to plate, mask, and etch so that a pattern of 4 different metals is created.

Table 3: Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Affective Goals
Level of Expertise	Description of Level	Example of Measurable Student Outcome
Receiving	Demonstrates a willingness to participate in the activity	When I'm in class I am attentive to the instructor, take notes, etc. I do not read the newspaper instead.
Responding	Shows interest in the objects, phenomena, or activity by seeking it out or pursuing it for pleasure	I complete my homework and participate in class discussions.
Valuing	Internalizes an appreciation for (values) the objectives, phenomena, or activity	I seek out information in popular media related to my class.
Organization	Begins to compare different values, and resolves conflicts between them to form an internally consistent system of values	Some of the ideas I've learned in my class differ from my previous beliefs. How do I resolve this?
Characterization by a Value or Value Complex	Adopts a long-term value system that is "pervasive, consistent, and predictable"	I've decided to take my family on a vacation to visit some of the places I learned about in my class.

To determine the level of expertise required for each measurable student outcome, first decide which of these three broad categories (knowledge-based, skills-based, and affective) the corresponding course goal belongs to. Then, using the appropriate Bloom's Taxonomy, look over the descriptions of the various levels of expertise. Determine which description most closely matches that measurable student outcome. As can be seen from the examples given in the three Tables, there are different ways of representing measurable student outcomes, e.g., as statements about students (Figure 2), as questions to be asked of students (Tables 1 and 2), or as statements from the student's perspective (Table 3). You may find additional ways of representing measurable student outcomes; those listed in Figure 2 and in Tables 1-3 are just examples.

Bloom's Taxonomy is a convenient way to describe the degree to which we want our students to understand and use concepts, to demonstrate particular skills, and to have their values, attitudes, and interests affected. It is critical that we determine the levels of student expertise that we are expecting our students to achieve because this will determine which classroom assessment techniques are most appropriate for the course. Though the most common form of classroom assessment used in introductory college courses--multiple choice tests--might be quite adequate for assessing knowledge and comprehension (levels 1 and 2, Table 1), this type of assessment often falls short when we want to assess our students knowledge at the higher levels of synthesis and evaluation (levels 5 and 6).4

Multiple-choice tests also rarely provide information about achievement of skills-based goals. Similarly, traditional course evaluations, a technique commonly used for affective assessment, do not generally provide useful information about changes in student values, attitudes, and interests.

Thus, commonly used assessment techniques, while perhaps providing a means for assigning grades, often do not provide us (or our students) with useful feedback for determining whether students are attaining our course goals. Usually, this is due to a combination of not having formalized goals to begin with, not having translated those goals into outcomes that are measurable, and not using assessment techniques capable of measuring expected student outcomes given the levels of expertise required to achieve them. Using the CIA model of course development, we can ensure that our curriculum, instructional methods, and classroom assessment techniques are properly aligned with course goals.

Note:

Note that Bloom's Taxonomy need not be applied exclusively after course goals have been defined. Indeed, Bloom's Taxonomy and the words associated with its different categories can help in the goals-defining process itself. Thus, Bloom's Taxonomy can be used in an iterative fashion to first state and then refine course goals. Bloom's Taxonomy can finally be used to identify which classroom assessment techniques are most appropriate for measuring these goals.

MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

                                                      

                       SYED IRFAN ABID BUKHARI    03336366260

MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

What is Psychology?
 
- The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means ‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”.
- According to earlier psychologists, the function of psychology was to study the nature, origin and destiny of the human soul. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed and touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul.
- In the 18^th century, psychology was understood as the ‘Science of Mind’. William James (1892) defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind ‘ is also quite ambiguous as there was confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind.
- Modern psychologists defined psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”. James Sully (1884) defined psychology as the “Science of the Inner World”. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined psychology as the science which studies the “internal experiences’. But there are three levels of consciousness – conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this definition also was not accepted by some.
- (Thus psychology first lost its soul, then its mind and then its consciousness). At present only its behaviour exists. William McDugall (1905) defined psychology as the “Science of Behaviour”, W.B. Pillsbury (1911) and J.B. Watson (1912) also defined psychology as the science of behavior.
- Behaviour generally means overt activities which can observed and measured scientifically. But one’s behaviour is always influenced by his experiences. So when we study one’s behaviour we must also study his experiences.
- Psychology should, therefore, be defined as a “science of behaviour and experiences on human beings” (B.F. Skinner)
- According to Crow and Crow, “Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human relationship’”.

What is Educational Psychology?

- Educational psychology is that branch of psychology in which the findings of psychology are applied in the field of education. It is the scientific study of human behaviour in educational setting.
- According to Charles. E. Skinner, “Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of human beings in educational situations”.
- Thus educational psychology is a behavioural science with two main references
– human behaviour and education. – In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational
Psychology is the science of Education”.

- Education by all means is an attempt to mould and shape the behaviour of the pupil. It aims to produce desirable changes in him for the all-round development of his personality.
- The essential knowledge and skill to do this job satisfactorily is supplied by Educational Psychology. In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand the development of his pupils, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which they learn and their social relationships.”
- (In this way, the work of the Educational Psychologists resembles with that of an Engineer, who is a technical expert. The Engineer supplies all the knowledge and skill essential for the accomplishment of the job satisfactorily… for example, construction of a bridge.). In the same way Educational Psychologists, who is a technical expert in the field of Education, supplies all the information, principles and techniques essential for:
· Understanding the behaviour of the pupil in response to educational environment and desired modification of his behaviour to bring an all-round development of his personality.
- In this way, it is quite reasonable to call Educational Psychology as a science and technology of Education.
- Thus, Educational Psychology concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation; cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child relationships etc.
- In short, it is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions: “Why do some students learn more than others?” and “What can be done to improve that learning?”
NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

- Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science of Education. We can summarize the nature of Educational Psychology in the following ways:

1. Educational Psychology is a science.
(Science is a branch of study concerned with observation of facts and establishment of verifiable general laws. Science employs certain objective methods for the collection of data. It has its objectives of understanding, explaining, predicting and control of facts.) Like any other science, educational psychology has also developed objective methods of collection of data. It also aims at understanding, predicting and controlling human behaviour.

2. Educational Psychology is a natural science.
An educational psychologist conducts his investigations, gathers his data and reaches his conclusions in exactly the same manner as physicist or the biologist.

3. Educational psychology is a social science.
Like the sociologist, anthropologist, economist or political scientist, the educational psychologist studies human beings and their sociability.

4. Educational psychology is a positive science.
 Normative science like Logic or Ethics deals with facts as they ought to be. A positive science deals with facts as they are or as they operate. Educational psychology studies the child’s behaviour as it is, not, as it ought to be. So it is a positive science.

5. Educational psychology is an applied science.
 It is the application of psychological principles in the field of education. By applying the principles and techniques of psychology, it tries to study the behaviour and experiences of the pupils. As a branch of psychology it is parallel to any other applied psychology. For example, educational psychology draws heavily facts from such areas as developmental psychology, clinical psychology, abnormal psychology and social psychology.

6. Educational psychology is a developing or growing science.
It is concerned with new and ever new researches. As research findings accumulate, educational psychologists get better insight into the child’s nature and behaviour.
W.A. Kelly (1941) listed the nature of Educational Psychology as follows:
i. To give a knowledge of the nature of the child
ii. To give understanding of the nature, aims and purposes of education
iii. To give understanding of the scientific methods and procedures which have been used in arriving at the facts and principles of educational psychology
iv. To present the principles and techniques of learning and teaching
v. To give training in methods of measuring abilities and achievement in school subjects
vi. To give a knowledge of the growth and development of children
vii. To assist in the better adjustment of children and to help them to prevent maladjustment
viii. To study the educational significance and control of emotions and
ix. To give an understanding of the principles and techniques of correct training.
- Thus, educational psychology is an applied, positive, social, specific and practical science. While general science deals with behaviour of the individuals in various spheres, educational psychology studies the behaviour of the individual in educational sphere only.
SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The scope of educational psychology is ever-growing due to constantly researches in this field. The following factors will indicate the scope of educational psychology:

1. The Learner.
The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner. Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. The topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood to adulthood.

2. The Learning Experiences.
Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction.

3. Learning process:
After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be provided, Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of effective learning etc.

4. Learning Situation or Environment.
 Here we deal with the environmental factors and learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. For the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process.

5. The Teacher:
The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning process. It discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing thyself’ for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of education. His conflicts, motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc so as to inspire him for becoming a successful teacher.
Though the entire scope of Educational Psychology is included in the above mentioned five key-factors, it may be further expanded by adding the following:

6. It studies Human Behaviour
It studies Human Behaviour in educational situations. Psychology is the study of behaviour, and education deals
with the modification of behaviour; hence, educational psychology pervades the whole field of education.
7. It studies the Growth and Development

7. It studies the Growth and Development of the child. How a child passes through the various stages of growth and what are the characteristics of each stage are included in the study of educational psychology.
8. To what extent Heredity and Environment

8. To what extent Heredity and Environment contribute towards the growth of the individual, and how this knowledge can be made use of for bringing about the optimum development of the child; form a salient feature of the scope of educational psychology.
Nature and Development of the Personality

9. Educational psychology deals with the Nature and Development of the Personality of an individual. In fact, education has been defined as the all-round development of the personality of an individual; personality development also implies a well-adjusted personality.
10. It studies Individual Difference:

10. It studies Individual Difference: Every individual differs from every other individual. It is one of the fundamental facts of human nature which have been brought to light by educational psychology. This one fact has revolutionalised the concept and process of education.
11. It studies the nature Intelligence and its Measurement.

11. It studies the nature Intelligence and its Measurement. This is of utmost importance for a teacher.
12. It Provides Guidance and Counselling:

12. It Provides Guidance and Counselling: Education is nothing but providing guidance to the growing child.
We can conclude by saying that Educational Psychology is narrower in scope than general psychology. While general psychology deals with the behaviour of the individual in a general way, educational psychology in concerned with the behaviour of the learner in an educational setting.

Behavioral Psychology

Behavioral psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on observable behaviors. Conditioning, reinforcement and punishment are key concepts used by behaviorists. Learn more about classical conditioning and operant conditioning as well as some of the major behaviorist thinkers.

                                                        SYED IRFAN ABID BUKHARI    03336366260

Early Intervention Definition,Importance and benefits

What is Early Intervention?

Early Intervention is a coordinated and comprehensive system of programs, services, and resources that are designed to meet the physical, intellectual, language, speech, social and emotional needs of children from birth to three years who have been identified as having a developmental delay or who are at risk for developing a delay.

The Early Intervention system of services is provided under Part C of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This law encourages states to develop coordinated programs of Early Intervention services for children with disabilities from birth to age three years and to ensure that the children and their parents have the same legal right to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) as children that do not have disabilities.

How can you, your child and your family benefit from Early Intervention services?

Early Intervention services provide families with the information and support they need to maximize their child’s overall development. Early Intervention services from qualified, experienced professionals can help you understand your child’s hearing loss. You will learn about your child’s strengths and needs and ways to help your child develop. You will discover that you and your family play an important role in your child’s development. You are your child’s teacher. You are the “expert” on your child. The choices you make will be yours and they will be made with confidence because they will be informed decisions.

You may have already been contacted about Early Intervention services. If you have not and you wish to know more about early intervention services in your area you may contact BEGINNINGS for more information and referral to a program.

Early Intervention Program for Children Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing:

The Early Intervention Program for Children who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing provides services to children who are deaf, hard of hearing, or deaf/blind, ages birth to three, and their families. Concentrating on language and communication skill development, itinerant professionals provide family-centered intervention in home and daycare settings. At age three, the program works to establish a smooth transition to the local education agency. 

Preschool for Visually Impaired Children

Early intervention services for children ages birth to five years with visual impairments are available through the Governor Morehead Preschool Program. This program, which is based in Raleigh but operates satellite programs in seventeen locations, provides itinerant services to children and their families in all 100 North Carolina counties. These services are provided by early interventionists trained to meet the unique needs of children who are visually impaired. The program is geared to prepare children to function successfully and independently in a wide variety of kindergarten placements. Intervention strategies focus on community-based experiences that incorporate a strong emphasis on developing pre-Braille, Braille, pre-Orientation and Mobility, and Orientation and Mobility skills, with instruction and intervention provided across all developmental domains. The goal of The Governor Morehead Preschool Program is to help children with visual impairments gain skills and self-confidence. Because it is critical to begin contact with these children as early in the process as possible, the Preschool Program serves visually impaired children from birth through age four. The Governor Morehead EIP services are community based. Teachers based in satellite locations across the state visit the children in their homes or in their community-based day care center. Services provided by the Early Intervention Program receive (as needed):  In-depth developmental evaluations designed for children with visual impairments Occupational and physical therapy Orientation and mobility training Low-vision, pre-Braille and Braille training Speech therapy Training and support for parents

The Importance of Early Intervention for Disadvantaged and/ or Vulnerable Children and Young People:

Early Intervention

Early intervention is essential to achieve the best possible outcome for the child. However multi-agency working is important too, when all the professionals involved with a child share information and co-operate with each other lives can be improved and even saved. Baby P is an example of multi-agencies not working together properly, early intervention and working together will help prevent more unnecessary deaths. Early years practitioners can provide information for local services which may be helpful to disadvantaged or vulnerable families, we can work together with social workers, health professionals and even DHSS by helping to complete forms for additional benefits the family may be entitled to. The best interest of the child is always the priority, policies and guidance must also be followed when a referral is being made to an outside agency. Working together for the benefit of the child. Early intervention is also at the heart of the Governments national strategy on child poverty. They hope to provide support and de-stigmatise services, provide more health visitors for Sure Start Children’s Centres and are providing an Early Intervention Grant for local authorities to invest in addressing their local needs. The impact of all these measures for early intervention, will hopefully be a more stable society with less children in workless homes. Parents will be able to work and support their children, providing better homes, healthier food and a stable home life. Children will appreciate their education and strive to achieve their full potential. They will be safer, healthier and hopefully happier. They will have access to facilities to improve their health and well-being as well as their physical, social & emotional development. Services will be in place to provide support to families in need, helping families stay together and become more stable. By 2020 our society will have changed for the better if the Governments strategy...

Why Intervene Early?

There are three primary reasons for intervening early with an exceptional child: to enhance the child's development, to provide support and assistance to the family, and to maximize the child's and family's benefit to society.

Child development research has established that the rate of human learning and development is most rapid in the preschool years. Timing of intervention becomes particularly important when a child runs the risk of missing an opportunity to learn during a state of maximum readiness. If the most teachable moments or stages of greatest readiness are not taken advantage of, a child may have difficulty learning a particular skill at a later time. Karnes and Lee (1978) have noted that "only through early identification and appropriate programming can children develop their potential" (p. 1).

Early intervention services also have a significant impact on the parents and siblings of an exceptional infant or young child. The family of a young exceptional child often feels disappointment, social isolation, added stress, frustration, and helplessness. The compounded stress of the presence of an exceptional child may affect the family's well-being and interfere with the child's development. Families of handicapped children are found to experience increased instances of divorce and suicide, and the handicapped child is more likely to be abused than is a nonhandicapped child. Early intervention can result in parents having improved attitudes about themselves and their child, improved information and skills for teaching their child, and more release time for leisure and employment. Parents of gifted preschoolers also need early services so that they may better provide the supportive and nourishing environment needed by the child.

A third reason for intervening early is that society will reap maximum benefits. The child's increased developmental and educational gains and decreased dependence upon social institutions, the family's increased ability to cope with the presence of an exceptional child, and perhaps the child's increased eligibility for employment, all provide economic as well as social benefits.

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Is Early Intervention Really Effective?

After nearly 50 years of research, there is evidence--both quantitative (data-based) and qualitative (reports of parents and teachers)--that early intervention increases the developmental and educational gains for the child, improves the functioning of the family, and reaps long-term benefits for society. Early intervention has been shown to result in the child: (a) needing fewer special education and other habilitative services later in life; (b) being retained in grade less often; and (c) in some cases being indistinguishable from nonhandicapped classmates years after intervention.

Disadvantaged and gifted preschool-aged children benefit from early intervention as well. Longitudinal data on disadvantaged children who had participated in the Ypsilanti Perry Preschool Project showed that they had maintained significant gains at age 19 (Berrueta-Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, Weikart, 1984). These children were more committed to schooling and more of them finished high school and went on to postsecondary programs and employment than children who did not attend preschool. They scored higher on reading, arithmetic, and language achievement tests at all grade levels; showed a 50% reduction in the need for special education services through the end of high school; and showed fewer anti-social or delinquent behaviors outside of school. Karnes (1983) asserts that underachievement in the gifted child may be prevented by early identification and appropriate programming.

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Is Early Intervention Cost Effective?

The available data emphasize the long-term cost effectiveness of early intervention. The highly specialized, comprehensive services necessary to produce the desired developmental gains are often, on a short-term basis, more costly than traditional school-aged service delivery models. However, there are significant examples of long-term cost savings that result from such early intervention programs.

• A longitudinal study of children who had participated in the Perry Preschool Project (Schweinhart and Weikart, 1980) found that when schools invest about $3,000 for 1 year of preschool education for a child, they immediately begin to recover their investment through savings in special education services. Benefits included $668 from the mother's released time while the child attended preschool; $3,353 saved by the public schools because children with preschool education had fewer years in grades; and $10,798 n projected lifetime earnings for the child.
• Wood (1981) calculated the total cumulative costs to age 18 of special education services to child beginning intervention at: (a) birth ; (b) age 2; (c) age 6; and (d) at age 6 with no eventual movement to regular education. She found that the total costs were actually less if begun at birth! Total cost of special services begun at birth was $37,273 and total cost if begun at age 6 was between $46,816 and $53,340. The cost is less when intervention is earlier because of the remediation and prevention of developmental problems which would have required special services later in life.
• A 3-year follow-up in Tennessee showed that for every dollar spent on early treatment, $7.00 in savings were realized within 36 months. This savings resulted from deferral or special class placement and institutionalization of severe behavior disordered children (Snider, Sullivan, and Manning, 1974).
• A recent evaluation of Colorado's state-wide early intervention services reports a cost savings of $4.00 for every dollar spent within a 3-year period (McNulty, Smith, and Soper, 1983).

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Are There Critical Features To Include In Early Intervention?

While there have been too few attempts to determine critical features of effective early intervention programs, there are a few factors which are present in most studies that report the greatest effectiveness. These program features include: (a) the age of the child at the time of intervention; (b) parent involvement ; and (c) the intensity and/or the amount of structure of the program model.

• Many studies and literature reviews report that the earlier the intervention, the more effective it is. With intervention at birth or soon after the diagnosis of a disability or high risk factors, the developmental gains are greater and the likelihood of developing problems is reduced (Cooper, 1981; Garland, Stone, Swanson, and Woodruff, 1981 ; Maisto and German, 1979; Strain, Young, and Horowitz, 1981).
• The involvement of parents in their child's treatment is also important. The data show that parents of both handicapped and gifted preschool-aged children need the support and skills necessary to cope with their child's special needs. Outcomes of family intervention include: (a) the parent's ability to implement the child's program at home; and (b) reduced stress that facilitates the health of the family. Both of these factors appear to play an important role in the success of the program with the child (Beckman-Bell, 1981; Cooper, 1981; Garland and others, 1981; Karnes, 1983; Lovaas and Koegel, 1973; Shonkoff and Hauser-Cram, 1987).
• Certain "structural" features are also related to the effectiveness of early intervention, regardless of the curriculum model employed. Successful programs are reported to be more highly structured than less successful ones (Shonkoff and Hauser-Cram, 1987; Strain and Odom, in press). That is, maximum benefits are reported in programs that: (a) clearly specify and frequently monitor child and family behavior objectives; (b) precisely identify teacher behaviors and activities that are to be used in each lesson; (c) utilize task analysis procedures; and (d) regularly use child assessment and progress data to modify instruction. In addition to structure, the intensity of the services, particularly for severely disordered children, appears to affect outcomes. Individualizing instruction and services to meet child needs also is reported to increase effectiveness. This does not necessarily mean one-to-one instruction. Rather, group activities are structured to reflect the instructional needs of each child.

Benefits of Early Intervention

It is important to always know that as parents, you are entitled to select the communication approaches you want to use with your child so he or she can develop language. The decision making process and the implementation of the chosen approach is known as early intervention. The emphasis of early intervention is on helping families become educated and comfortable as the child’s primary teachers of language. The family unit, not only the child with the hearing loss, is emphasized in early intervention.

One critical benefit of early intervention is that it allows the family to gather as much information as possible to make the best decision for their child’s language and communication approach. Once a child is diagnosed with a hearing loss, it is important to speak with trained professionals such as audiologists, speech-language pathologists, educators of the deaf and/or otolaryngologists (ear, nose and throat specialists) to understand the cause(s), as well as treatment options and approaches that are available and appropriate.

Early intervention is also important because the first few months of a child’s life are vital to the development of language and communication skills. Typically, at the 24th week of pregnancy the inner ear is fully developed and the child is able to hear some sounds. Within the first few months following birth, the child begins to distinguish various sounds such as human speech, and by age 2, the foundations for language (hearing and speaking) are developed. For a child with a hearing loss, delayed identification and intervention can adversely impact his or her language and cognitive development. Infants and young children whose hearing loss is detected early and who receive appropriate and timely intervention have an excellent chance to develop these skills alongside their typical hearing peers.

Within the first few months of your child’s diagnosis, you will discover there is a wide range of resources available to you. Your local school district or early intervention provider is a vital resource and can work with you to develop an Individual Family Service Plan, or IFSP, which serves as a road map for addressing your child’s hearing loss and intervention approach. Parent-infant programs offer a number of services, including consultation on acquiring hearing aids and assistive listening devices, parent counseling, explanation of the various communication options for children with hearing loss, and training in the communication approach selected on the advice of professionals and family preference.

When a child turns 3, he or she is ready for transition to a pre-school program if the family chooses. Times of significant transition can be challenging both for you and your child, particularly for a child with hearing loss. Preparation in the form of visiting the program, working with your current IFSP team to prepare for the transition, and having a clear idea of what you are looking for in an appropriate educational setting will help smooth this passage for you and your child. Learn more about Education Advocacy Training with this online course which provides an overview of the legal framework for special education law and your child’s educational rights.